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Published in 2011 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2011 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2010 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor J.E. Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition John P. Rafferty: Associate Editor, Earth Sciences Rosen Educational Services Hope Lourie Killcoyne: Senior Editor and Project Manager Joanne Randolph: Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by David Nagle Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Mesozoic era: age of dinosaurs/edited by John P. Rafferty. p. cm.—(The geologic history of Earth) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes index. ISBN 978-1-61530-193-5 (eBook) 1. Geology, Stratigraphic—Mesozoic. I. Rafferty, John P. QE675.M367 2010 560'.176—dc22 2009043136 On the cover: Tyrannosaurus rex, “king of the tyrant lizards,” reigned during the Jurassic period, which occurred midway through the Mesozoic era. This model of T. rex is part of the collection at the Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, Calif. Charles C. Place/ Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images p. 12 © www.istockphoto.com / Robert King; pp. 23, 102, 140, 209, 275, 277, 279 © www. istockphoto.com / Colton Stiffler Contents Introduction 12 Chapter 1: Overview of the Mesozoic Era 23 Mesozoic Geology 24 The Tethys Sea 27 Mesozoic Life 29 Life in the Oceans 30 Life on Land 31 Mass Extinction at the end of the Mesozoic 32 The Dinoaurs 34 The Search for Dinosaurs 36 Natural History of Dinosaurs 47 Dinosaur Classification 60 The End of the Dinosaurs 93 Chapter 2: The Triassic Period 102 The Triassic Environment 104 Paleogeography 104 Paleoclimate 106 Triassic Life 109 Mass Extinction of the Triassic 109 The Permian-Triassic Extinctions 110 The End-Triassic Extinctions 111 Invertebrates 112 Vertebrates 114 Fishes and Marine Reptiles 114 Terrestrial Reptiles and the First Mammals 115 From Reptiles to Dinosaurs 116 35 41 54 120 124 131 Flying Reptiles 117 Plants 117 Significant Dinosaurs of the Triassic Period 118 Coelophysis 119 Herrerasaurus 119 Plateosaurus 120 Other Significant Life-Forms of the Triassic Period 121 Bauria 121 Chondrosteiformes 122 Cynognathus 122 Daonella 123 Euparkeria 123 Ichthyosaurs 124 Leptolepis 126 Marasuchus 126 Myophoria 127 Nothosaurus 127 Phytosaurs 128 Pleuromeia 128 Pterosaurs 129 Tetractinella 131 Thrinaxodon 132 Tritylodon 132 Tropites 133 Voltzia 133 Triassic Geology 133 Continental Rifting in the Triassic 134 Mountain-Building Activity in the Triassic 134 The Stages of the Triassic Period 134 Induan Stage 135 Olenekian Stage 135 Anisian Stage 136 Ladinian Stage 136 Carnian Stage 137 Noria Stage 137 Rhaetian Stage 138 Chapter 3: The Jurassic Period 140 The Jurassic Environment 141 Paleogeography 141 Paleoclimate 144 Jurassic Life 145 Marine Life 146 Protists and Invertebrates 148 Vertebrates 150 Terrestrial Life 151 Invertebrates 151 Vertebrates 151 Plants 154 Significant Dinosaurs of the Jurassic Period 155 Allosa