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Published in 2012 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2012 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2012 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor J.E. Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition John P. Rafferty: Associate Editor, Earth and Life Sciences Rosen Educational Services Jeanne Nagle: Senior Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by John P. Rafferty Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Geological sciences/edited by John P. Rafferty. — 1st ed. p. cm. — (Geology: landforms, minerals, and rocks) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61530-544-5 (eBook) 1. Geology. I. Rafferty, John P. QE28.G323 2012 550—dc22 2010047139 On the cover (front and back): Geological layers, grave, Petra, Jordan. Patrice Hauser/ Photographer's Choice/Getty Images On the cover (front top), p. 1: Stalagtites and stalagmites in an illuminated cave (far left); paleontologists chip at a rock face in Madagascar (second from left); geologic folds at a cliff face in Spain (second from right); a geologist works with a pickaxe to dislodge samples (far right). Shutterstock.com; Maria Stenzel/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images; Shutterstock.com; Shutterstock.com On pages 1, 37, 99, 129, 192, 194, 199: Dinosaur fossils found in Alberta, Canada. AbleStock/ Jupiterimages Contents Introduction Chapter 1: Evolution of the Geologic Sciences The Division of Earth Sciences Origins in Prehistoric Times Antiquity Knowledge of Earth Composition and Structure Knowledge of Earth History Fossils Knowledge of Landforms and of Land-Sea Relations The 16th–18th Centuries Ore Deposits and Mineralogy Paleontology and Stratigraphy Earth History According to Werner and James Hutton Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism The 19th Century Crystallography and the Classification of Minerals and Rocks William Smith and Faunal Succession Charles Lyell and Uniformitarianism Louis Agassiz and the Ice Age Erratics Geologic Time and the Age of Earth Concepts of Landform Evolution Gravity, Isostasy, and Earth’s Figure x 1 2 3 4 4 5 7 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 7 14 15 17 17 18 19 20 21 17 The 20th Century Isostasy Radiometric Dating Experimental Study of Rocks Crystallography The Chemical Analysis of Rocks and Minerals Micropaleontology Seismology and the Structure of Earth The Theory of Plate Tectonics Seismology Remanent Magnetism Chapter 2: Geology Study of Earth’s Composition Mineralogy Petrology Economic Geology Geochemistry Study of Earth’s Structure Geodesy Geophysics Structural Geology Tectonics Volcanology Study of Earth’s Surface Features and Processes Geomorphology Glacial Geology GIS Earth History Historical Geology and Stratigraphy Paleontology Geologic Time Astrogeology 22 23 24 26 28 42 28 29 30 31 32 35 37 40 40 44 53 54 61 62 63 67 70 71 74 75 76 76 78 78