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AMERICAN INDEPENDENT CINEMA An Introduction Yannis Tzioumakis AMERICAN INDEPENDENT CINEMA AMERICAN INDEPENDENT CINEMA AN INTRODUCTION ∑ Yannis Tzioumakis Edinburgh University Press Images on pp. 24, 70 and 211 courtesy of The Kobal Collection. Images on pp. 54 and 126 courtesy of United Artists/The Kobal Collection. Image on p. 150 courtesy of AIP/The Kobal Collection. Image on p. 175 courtesy of Lion Productions/The Kobal Collection. Image on p. 231 courtesy of Orion/The Kobal Collection. Image on p. 259 courtesy of Cineville/Film 4 International/The Kobal Collection. Image on p. 271 courtesy of View Askew/The Kobal Collection. © Yannis Tzioumakis, 2006 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh Typeset in Adobe Palatino by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Manchester and printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-13 0 7486 1866 X (hardback) 978 0 7486 1866 8 (hardback) 0 7486 1867 8 (paperback) 978 0 7486 1867 5 (paperback) The right of Yannis Tzioumakis to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. CONTENTS ∑ Analytical Table of Contents vii List of Tables xi List of Case Studies xii List of Figures Acknowledgements xiii xiv Introduction: Problems of Definition and the Discourse of American Independent Cinema 1 Part I American Independent Cinema in the Studio Years (mid-1920s–late 1940s) 1. Independent Filmmaking in the Studio Era: Tendencies within the Studio System 19 2. Independent Filmmaking in the Studio Era: The Poverty Row Studios (1930–50s) 63 Part II The Transitional Years (late 1940s–late 1960s) 3. Independence by Force: The Effects of the Paramount Decree on Independent Film Production 101 4. An Audience for the Independents: Exploitation Films for the Nation’s Youth 135 vi AMERICAN INDEPENDENT CINEMA Part III Contemporary American Independent Cinema (late 1960s–present) 5. The New Hollywood and the Independent Hollywood 169 6. American Independent Cinema in the Age of the Conglomerates 192 7. Mini-majors and Major Independents 222 8. The Institutionalisation of American Independent Cinema 246 Epilogue: From Independent to ‘Specialty’ Cinema 281 Bibliography 285 Index 293 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS ∑ List of Tables xi List of Case Studies xii List of Figures xiii Acknowledgements xiv Introduction: Problems of Definition and the Discourse of American Independent Cinema 1 Part I American Independent Cinema in the Studio Years (mid-1920s–late 1940s) 1. Independent Filmmaking in the Studio Era: Tendencies within the Studio System Introduction The First Independents Independents before the Formation of the Studios Independents in the Age of Oligopoly The First Period (mid-/late 1920s–1939) Economic Constraints Independent Production vs Studio-Unit Production Some Economic Opportunities The Second Period (1940–8) The Industry-wide Shift The End of the War Boon Conclusion 19 19 21 25 30 31 35 37 41 44 47 52 54 viii AMERICAN INDEPENDENT CINEMA 2. Independent Filmmaking in the Studio Era: The Poverty Row Studios (1930–50s) 63 Introduction The First Period (1930–9) Monogram Pictures Republic Pictures Grand National Films Independent B Films vs Studio B Films The Second Period (1940-early 1950s