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Published in 2011 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2011 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2011 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor J.E. Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition John P. Rafferty: Associate Editor, Earth and Life Sciences Rosen Educational Services Hope Lourie Killcoyne: Senior Editor and Project Manager Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by Nancy Finton Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Climate and climate change / edited by John P. Rafferty. p. cm. -- (The living earth) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61530-388-5 (eBook) 1. Climatology. 2. Climatic changes. I. Rafferty, John P. QC981.C623 2011 551.5—dc22 2010015842 On the cover: The United States Geological Survey reports that as a result of global warming conditions, melting ice in the Arctic Sea could result in a loss of two-thirds of the world's polar bear population by the middle of the 21st century. Ice floes, such as the one pictured here, are vital for polar bears as a place to rest and breed, and as a launching point for hunting. Decreasing summer sea ice forces bears to swim greater distances than normal, leaving them exhausted, underweight, and vulnerable to drowning. Shutterstock.com On pages v, 1, 102, 135, 168, 227, 330, 332, 339: The distinctive funnel-shaped cloud of a tornado. Charles Doswell III/Stone/Getty Images On page x: Flooded train tracks in New Orleans, La., the result of Hurricane Gustav, a 2008 tropical cyclone that cut a swath across Hispaniola, Jamaica, Cuba, and the U.S. Gulf Coast. Stephen Morton/Getty Images On pages xiv and xv: The major climatic groups are based on patterns of average precipitation, average temperature, and the natural vegetation found on Earth. This map depicts the world distribution of climate types based on the classification originally invented by Wladimir Köppen in 1900. Copyright Encyclopaedia Britannica; rendering for this edition by Rosen Educational Services CONTENTS Introduction x Chapter 1: Climate 1 Solar Radiation and Temperature 2 The Distribution of Radiant Energy from the Sun 2 The Effects of the Atmosphere 3 Average Radiation Budgets 6 Surface-Energy Budgets 7 Climatology 9 Temperature 9 The Global Variation of Mean Temperature 10 Diurnal, Seasonal, and Extreme Temperatures 11 Temperature Variation with Height 13 Circulation, Currents, and OceanAtmosphere Interaction 14 Short-Term Temperature Changes 17 Atmospheric Humidity and Precipitation 18 Atmospheric Humidity 18 Precipitation 30 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 56 Atmospheric Pressure 57 Wind 59 Maritime Continent 82 Monsoons 82 Upper-Level Winds 86 Chapter 2: Climatic Classification 102 Approaches to Climatic Classification 105 32 36 37 48 67 50 Genetic Classifications 106 Empirical Classifications 108 The World Distribution of Major Climatic Types 114 Type A Climates 114 Type B Climates 118 Type C and D Climates 12