Global Ecology

GLOBAL ECOLOGY A DERIVATIVE OF ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ECOLOGY EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Sven Erik Jørgensen ASSOCIATE EDITOR-IN CHIEF Brian D. Fath EDITORS Steve Bartell Principal Scientist and Manager of Maryville Operations, E2 Consulting Engineers, Inc., 339 Whitecrest Drive, Maryville, TN 37801, USA Tae-Soo Chon Division of Biological Sciences, Pusan National University, 30 Jangjeon-Dong, Geumjeong-Gu, Busan (Pusan) 609-735, Republic of Korea (South Korea) James Elser Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA William Grant Texas A&M University, 307A Nagle Hall, College Station, TX 77843, USA Luca Palmeri Dipartimenti Processi Chimici dell’Ingegneria, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy Anastasia Svirejeva-Hopkins Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Postfach 60 12 03, D-14412 Potsdam, Germany Jan Vymazal Nove domy 165, 164 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic Simone Bastianoni Department of Chemical & Biosystems Sciences, University of Siena, Via A. Moro, 2, 53100 Siena, Italy Donald de Angelis Department of Biology, University of Miami, P. O. Box 249118, Coral Gables, FL 33124, USA Michael Graham Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, 8272 Moss Landing Road, Moss Landing, CA 95039, USA Rudolph Harmsen Department of Biology, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6, Canada Yuri Svirezhev Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Postfach 60 12 03, D-14412 Potsdam, Germany Alexey Voinov University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA GLOBAL ECOLOGY A DERIVATIVE OF ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ECOLOGY Editor-in-Chief SVEN ERIK JØRGENSEN Copenhagen University, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute A, Section of Environmental Chemistry, Toxicology and Ecotoxicology, University Park 2, Copenhagen, Denmark Associate Editor-in-Chief BRIAN D. FATH Department of Biological Sciences, Towson University, Towson, Maryland, USA AMSTERDAM  BOSTON  HEIDELBERG  LONDON  NEW YORK  OXFORD  PARIS  SAN DIEGO  SAN FRANCISCO  SINGAPORE  SYDNEY  TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Radarweg 29, 1043 NX Amsterdam, The Netherlands Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA01803, USA Copyright  2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved Material in the text originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ecology, edited by Sven Erik Jørgensen (Elsevier B.V. 2008) The following article are US government works in the public domain, and are not subject to copyright and shall have the following notice, Published by Elsevier B.V., 2010: EVOLUTION OF ‘PREY–PREDATOR’ SYSTEMS No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone