The Urban Climate

The Urban Climate This is Volume 28 in the INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICS SERIES A series of monographs and textbooks Edited by J. VAN MIEGHEM (1959-1976), ANTON L. HALES (1972-1980), and WILLIAM L. DONN A complete list of the books in this series appears at the end of this volume. HELMUT EmLANDSBERG Institute for Physical Science and Technology University of Maryland College Park, Ma.ryland 1981 ACADEMIC PRESS A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers New York London Toronto Sydney San Francisco COPYRIGHT @ 1981, B Y ACADEMIC PRESS,TNC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. N O P ART OF T H I S PUBLICATION MAY B E REPRODUCED OR TRA NSM ITTED IN ANY F O R M OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPY, RECORDING, OR ANY I N F O RM ATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYST EM, W I T H O U T P ERMISSION I N WRITING F R O M THE PUBLISHER. ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. 1 I1 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003 United Kingdom Edilion published by ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD. 24/28 Oval Road, London NW1 7DX Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Landsberg, Helmut Erich, Date. The urban climate. (International geophysics series; v. 28) Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Urban climatology. I. Title. 11. Series. 80-2766 QC981.7.U7L36 551.5'09173'2 ISBN 0-12-435960-4 AACR2 PRINTED I N T H E UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 81828384 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Preface ix 1 Introduction 1.1 The Literature 1.2 Historical Developments 1.3 The Problem of Local Climate Modification References 1 3 9 14 2 The Assessment of the Urban Atmosphere 2.1 Synoptic versus Local Scale 2.2 Observational Procedures References 3 17 20 22 Urban Air Composition 3.1 The Urban Atmosphere 3.2 Air Standards and Observations 23 26 V vi Contents 3.3 3.4 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 Pollutant- Weather Interactions Urban Climatological Dispersion Models References 34 44 50 Urban Energy Fluxes Solar Radiation Other Flux Parameters Man-Made Factors in the Urban Heat Balance References 53 59 71 79 5 The Urban Heat Island 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Development and Growth of the Heat Island Fluctuations of the Heat Island Vertical Extent of the Heat Island Wind Influence on the Heat Island Consequences of the Urban Heat Island References 84 100 108 112 118 123 6 The Urban Wind Field 6.1 6.2 6.3 7 127 Empirical Evidence for Wind Alterations 135 Vertical Wind Structure in Urban Areas Urban Wind Field and Other Mesoscale Circulations 145 149 References Models of Urban Temperature and Wind Fields 7.1 Static Models 7.2 Dynamic Models of Urban Flow 7.3 Model Applications to Air Pollution Studies 154 156 169 Contents List of Symbols References vii 173 174 8 Moisture, Clouds, and Hydrometeors 8.1 The Urban Humidity Field 8.2 Urban Clouds 8.3 Urban Precipitation References 9 178 182 186 207 Urban Hydrology Text References 211 222 10 Special Aspects of Urban Climate 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Corrosion and Deterioration Urban Noise Plants in the Urban Atmosphere Effects of Urban Atmosphere on Humans References 223 226 231 235 251 11 Urban Planning Text References 255 261 Author Index Subject Index 263 271 This page intentionally left blank A quarter century has elapsed since the last monographic review of knowledge about urban climates appeared in book form.' That summarization came at a time when a certain plateau of knowledge had been reached. Essentially, it marked the end o