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Optical Chemical Sensors NATO Science Series A Series presenting the results of scientific meetings supported under the NATO Science Programme. The Series is published by IOS Press, Amsterdam, and Springer in conjunction with the NATO Public Diplomacy Division. Sub-Series I. II. III. IV. Life and Behavioural Sciences Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry Computer and Systems Science Earth and Environmental Sciences IOS Press Springer IOS Press Springer The NATO Science Series continues the series of books published formerly as the NATO ASI Series. The NATO Science Programme offers support for collaboration in civil science between scientists of countries of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. The types of scientific meeting generally supported are “Advanced Study Institutes” and “Advanced Research Workshops”, and the NATO Science Series collects together the results of these meetings. The meetings are co-organized by scientists from , NATO countries and scientists from NATO s Partner countries – countries of the CIS and Central and Eastern Europe. Advanced Study Institutes are high-level tutorial courses offering in-depth study of latest advances in a field. Advanced Research Workshops are expert meetings aimed at critical assessment of a field, and identification of directions for future action. As a consequence of the restructuring of the NATO Science Programme in 1999, the NATO Science Series was re-organized to the four sub-series noted above. Please consult the following web sites for information on previous volumes published in the Series. http://www.nato.int/science http://www.springer.com http://www.iospress.nl Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry – Vol. 224 Optical Chemical Sensors edited by F. Baldini IFAC-CNR, Florence, Italy A.N. Chester Hughes Research Laboratories, Inc., Malibu, California, U.S.A. J. Homola IREE-Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic and S. Martellucci The University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy Published in cooperation with NATO Public Diplomacy Division Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Optical Chemical Sensors Erice, Italy 29 July-10 August 2004 A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-13 1-4020-4610-3 (PB) 978-1-4020-4610-0 (PB) 1-4020-4609-X (HB) 978-1-4020-4609-4 (HB) 1-4020-4611-1 (e-book) 978-1-4020-4611-7 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands. Table of Contents Preface........................................................................................………........ ix List of contributors..................................................………........................... xi Directors’s list of participants................................................………..........xvii Editorial......................................................................................………..... xxv List of ISQE courses.......................................................………...............xxvii 1 Birth of the maser and laser C.H. Townes.............................................................……….......................1