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climate change Shifting Glaciers, Deserts, and Climate Belts climate change Shifting Glaciers, Deserts, and Climate Belts Timothy Kusky, Ph.D. CLIMATE CHANGE: Shifting Glaciers, Deserts, and Climate Belts Copyright © 2009 by Timothy Kusky, Ph.D. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kusky, Timothy M. Climate change : shifting glaciers, deserts, and climate belts / Timothy Kusky. p. cm.— (Hazardous Earth) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6466-3 ISBN-10: 0-8160-6466-0 1. Climatic changes. 2. Climatic changes—Environmental aspects. 3. Climatic zones. I. Title. QC981.8.C5K876 2009 551.6—dc22 2008005134 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Erika K. Arroyo Illustrations by Richard Garratt Photo research by Suzanne M. Tibor, Ph.D. Printed in the United States of America VB FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper and contains 30 percent postconsumer recycled contents. To the 100 million people who live within three feet of present-day sea level n n n Contents Contents Preface Acknowledgments Introduction vii xi xiii xv 1 Natural Long-term Climate Change: Atmospheric Evolution, Plate Tectonics, Supercontinents, and Solar Evolution Structure of the Atmosphere Evolution of the Atmosphere Role of the Atmosphere in Climate Change When Will the Sun Expand to Make Earth Uninhabitable? Plate Tectonics and Climate Supercontinents and Climate Climate and Seasonality Conclusion 1 3 9 10 11 12 14 17 18 2 Natural Medium- and Short-term Climate Change: Astronomical Forcing, El Niño–Southern Oscillation, Thermohaline Circulation, and Massive Volcanism Astronomical Forcing of the Climate Thermohaline Circulation and Climate El Niño and the Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Major Volcanic Eruptions and Climate Change Understanding the Greenhouse Effect 20 21 27 30 34 35 Examples of Climate Changes Caused by Flood Basalt Volcanism How Fast Can Climate Change? Conclusion 3 Human-Induced Climate Changes Temperature Variations during the Past 1,000 Years Observed Short-term Climate Changes and Their Effects Causes of Short-term Climate Change Global Warming Holes Comparison of Short-term Climate Changes with the Medium-term Paleoclimate Record Sea Level Changes Conclusion 4 Global Climate Changes That Lead to Droughts and Desert Formation Processes That Lead to the Formation of Deserts Is There a Drought in Las Vegas? Desert Landforms Wind in Deserts Windblown Sand and Dust Conclusion 5 Examples of Expanding Deserts and Drought Disasters Drought Caused by Changes in Global Atmospheric Circulation Drought and Desertification in the Sahel and Sub-Saharan Africa China’s Effort to Halt Expansion of the Gobi Desert The United States Dust Bowl Period Drought and Water Shortage Brought On by Population Growth Shifting Deserts and Desertification Conclusion 6 Shrinking Glaciers Formation of Glaciers Movement of Glaciers Glaciation and Glacial Landforms Glacial Transport Types of Glacial Hazards 38 40 41