ADVANCES IN IMAGING AND ELECTRON PHYSICS VOLUME 102 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PETER W. HAWKES CEMESILuboratoire d 'Optique Electmnique du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifque Toulouse, France ASSOCIATE EDITORS BENJAMIN KAZAN Xerox Corporation Palo Alto Reseurch Center Palo Alto, California TOM MULVEY Department of Electronic Engineering and Applied Physics Aston University Birmingham, United Kingdom Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics EDITEDBY PETER W. HAWKES CEMESILaboratoire d 'Optique Electronique du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Toulouse, France VOLUME 102 ACADEMIC PRESS San Diego London Boston New York Sydney Tokyo Toronto This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ Copyright 0 1998 by ACADEMIC PRESS All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The appearance of the code at the bottom of the first page of a chapter in this book indicates the Publisher’s consent that copies of the chapter may be made for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific clients. This consent is given on the condition, however, that the copier pay the stated per copy fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923), for copying beyond that permitted by Sections 107 or 108of the U.S. Copyright Law. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, such as copying for general distribution, for advertising or promotional purposes, for creating new collective works, or for resale. Copy fees for pre-1997 chapters are as shown on the chapter title pages; if no fee code appears on the chapter title page, the copy fee is the same as for current chapters. 1076-5670/98 $25.00 ACADEMIC PRESS 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA 1300 Boylston Street, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167, USA http://www.apnet.com Academic Press Limited 24-28 Oval Road, London NWI 7DX, UK http://www.hbuk.co.uk/ap/ International Standard Book Number: 0-12-014744-0 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 9798990001 l C 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CONTENTS CONTRIBUTORS .. F%EFACE . . . . .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii ix Finite Element Methods for the Solution of 3D Eddy Current Problems R. ALBANESE AND G. RU~INACCI 1.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 11. Field Equations and Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . 9 111. Fields. Potentials. and Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 IV. Edge Elements for 3D Field Problems and Vector Potentials . . . 30 V. Integral Formulations for Linear and Nonlinear Eddy Currents . . 50 VI. Differential Formulations and Constitutive Error Approach . . . 81 VII. Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Nanofabrication for Electronics w. CHEN AND H. m I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . I1. Nanofabrication Methods . . . . 111. Pattern Transfer . . . . . . . IV. Resolution Limit of Organic Resists V. Applications of Nanostructures . . VI. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E D . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ........ . . . . 87 90 125 138 158 174 176 Miniature Electron Optics A. D. FEINERMANAND D.A. CREW I. Introduction ............. IT. Scaling Laws for Electrostatic Lenses . . . 111. Fabrication of Miniature Electrostatic Lenses IV