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Also from the Editors Best Practices in Writing Instruction, Second Edition Edited by Steve Graham, Charles A. MacArthur, and Jill Fitzgerald Developing Strategic Writers through Genre Instruction: Resources for Grades 3–5 Zoi A. Philippakos, Charles A. MacArthur, and David L. Coker Jr. Handbook of Learning Disabilities, Second Edition Edited by H. Lee Swanson, Karen R. Harris, and Steve Graham HANDBOOK OF WRITING RESEARCH SECOND EDITION edited by Charles A. MacArthur Steve Graham Jill Fitzgerald THE GUILFORD PRESS New York London Epub Edition ISBN: 9781462522453; Kindle Edition ISBN: 9781462522460 © 2016 The Guilford Press A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc. 370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200, New York, NY 10001 www.guilford.com All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of writing research / edited by Charles A. MacArthur, Steve Graham, Jill Fitzgerald. — Second edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4625-2243-9 (hardback) 1. English language—Rhetoric—Study and teaching—Research—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. English language—Composition and exercises—Research— Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Report writing—Study and teaching—Research— Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Language arts—Research—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. MacArthur, Charles A., editor. II. Graham, Steve, 1950– editor. III. Fitzgerald, Jill, editor. PE1404.H358 2015 808′.042071—dc23 2015030840 To Dorothy Hsiao, for her friendship, support, and love —C. A. M. To Karen Harris, the love of this life and many to come —S. G. To my granddaughter, Lorine Winifred Miller, who loves to write —J. F. About the Editors Charles A. MacArthur, PhD, is Professor of Special Education and Literacy in the School of Education at the University of Delaware. His major research interests include writing development and instruction for struggling writers, development of self-regulated strategies, adult literacy, and applications of technology to support reading and writing. Currently he is coprincipal investigator of a study of writing instruction in first grade. Dr. MacArthur is coeditor of the Journal of Writing Research and serves on the editorial boards of several other journals. He has published over 100 articles and book chapters and coedited several books, including Best Practices in Writing Instruction, Second Edition (with Steve Graham and Jill Fitzgerald). Steve Graham, EdD, is the Warner Professor in the Division of Educational Leadership and Innovation at Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Arizona State University. He is also Research Professor in the Learning Science Institute at the Australian Catholic University in Brisbane. Dr. Graham is editor of the Journal of Educational Psychology. He has coedited several books, including the Handbook of Learning Disabilities, Second Edition, and is the coauthor of three influential Carnegie Corporation reports: Writing Next, Writing to Read, and Informing Writing. Dr. Graham has received numerous awards, including the Career Research Award from the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), the Kauffman–Hallahan Distinguished Researcher Award from the CEC Division of Research, the Samuel A. Kirk Award from the CEC Division of Learning Disabilities, the Distinguished Researcher Award from the special education interest group of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), and the Weiderholt Distinguished Lecture Award from the Council of Learning Disabilities. He is a Fellow of the AERA