A d v a n c e s i n Geosciences Volume 9: Solid Earth (SE) Ocean Science (OS) and Atmospheric Science (AS) ADVANCES IN GEOSCIENCES Editor-in-Chief: Wing-Huen Ip (National Central University, Taiwan) A 5-Volume Set Volume 1: Solid Earth (SE) ISBN-10 981-256-985-5 Volume 2: Solar Terrestrial (ST) ISBN-10 981-256-984-7 Volume 3: Planetary Science (PS) ISBN-10 981-256-983-9 Volume 4: Hydrological Science (HS) ISBN-10 981-256-982-0 Volume 5: Oceans and Atmospheres (OA) ISBN-10 981-256-981-2 A 4-Volume Set Volume 6: Hydrological Science (HS) ISBN-13 978-981-270-985-1 ISBN-10 981-270-985-1 Volume 7: Planetary Science (PS) ISBN-13 978-981-270-986-8 ISBN-10 981-270-986-X Volume 8: Solar Terrestrial (ST) ISBN-13 978-981-270-987-5 ISBN-10 981-270-987-8 Volume 9: Solid Earth (SE), Ocean Science (OS) & Atmospheric Science (AS) ISBN-13 978-981-270-988-2 ISBN-10 981-270-988-6 A d v a n c e s i n Geosciences Volume 9: Solid Earth (SE) Ocean Science (OS) and Atmospheric Science (AS) Editor-in-Chief Wing-Huen Ip National Central University, Taiwan Volume Editor-in-Chief Yun-Tai Chen Institute of Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China. World Scientific NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TA I P E I • CHENNAI Published by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ADVANCES IN GEOSCIENCES A 4-Volume Set Volume 9: Solid Earth (SE), Ocean Science (OS) & Atmospheric Science (AS) Copyright © 2007 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN-13 ISBN-10 ISBN-13 ISBN-10 978-981-270-781-9 981-270-781-6 978-981-270-988-2 981-270-988-6 (Set) (Set) (Vol. 9) (Vol. 9) Typeset by Stallion Press Email:
[email protected] Printed in Singapore. September 4, 2007 11:2 spi-b486-v4 AOGS 2006 - PS Volume EDITORS Editor-in-Chief: Wing