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Principles of Stratigraphy reaffirms the vital importance of stratigraphy to the earth sciences, and introduces the undergraduate to its key elements in a lively and interesting fashion.In Part I the author outlines key concepts including the foundations of sedimentology and sedimentary environments. Part II elucidates the basic principles of stratigraphic analysis, while Part III shows how stratigraphy is used in understanding sedimentary basin evolution, the interplay between tectonics and sedimentation, paleoenvironmental reconstruction, paleoclimatology, and the geologic history of other planets. There is also a chapter devoted to "problem" periods in earth history, where both the strengths and limitations of stratigraphic methods are illustrated.
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Principles of Stratigraphy Michael E. Brookfield
Principles of Stratigraphy
Principles of Stratigraphy Michael E. Brookfield
© 2004 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia The right of Michael E. Brookfield to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 2004 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brookfield, M. E. (Michael E.) Principles of stratigraphy / Michael E. Brookfield. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-4051-1164-X (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Geology, Stratigraphic. I. Title. QE651.B787 2004 551.7–dc21 2003002573 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Set in 9/11pt Photina by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com
Contents
Preface Acknowledgments 1
Introduction 1.1 Stratigraphy – why bother? 1.2 Development of stratigraphy 1.3 Phases of study
Part I Basics
viii x 1 1 3 8
11
2
Weathering 2.1 Types of weathering 2.2 Rates of weathering 2.3 Soil formation 2.4 Weathering and soil formation under water
13 13 15 16 21
3
Sediments and sedimentary rocks 3.1 Transportation and deposition 3.2 Clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks 3.3 Chemical and biochemical sediments and sedimentary rocks
22 22 24
4
Major environmental complexes and their recognition 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Impact and volcanic environments 4.3 Continental environments 4.4 Environments under water 4.5 Mixed environments 4.6 Peculiar environments
46
66 66 67 67 81 99 99
vi Contents
Part II Tracing environments in space and time
101
5
The vertical dimension 5.1 The local section 5.2 Breaks in the record 5.3 Dividing the local section: the type section 5.4 Strata and stratification
103 103 105 111 114
6
The horizontal dimension 6.1 Physical correlation 6.2 Lateral changes 6.3 Mapping
115 115 127 134
7
The time dimension 7.1 Age equivalence 7.2 Relative ages 7.3 Numerical methods (ages in years) 7.4 Calibration of relative and numerical dates
140 142 142 158 170
8
Basin analysis 8.1 Basin-fill architecture 8.2 Sediment provenance 8.3 Paleocurrents and sediment dispersal 8.4 Backstripping 8.5 Paleothermometry 8.6