✵ The Elements of Social Scientific Thinking TENTH EDITION
KENNETH HOOVER Western Washington University
TODD DONOVAN Western Washington University
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The Elements of Social Scientific Thinking, Tenth Edition Kenneth Hoover, Todd Donovan Senior Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Executive Editor: Carolyn Merrill Acquisition Editor: Edwin Hill Development Editor: Thomas Finn Assistant Editor: Kate MacLean Editorial Assistant: Matthew DiGangi Senior Marketing Manager: Amy Whitaker Marketing Coordinator: Josh Hendrick Marketing Communications Manager: Heather Baxley Senior Art Director: Linda Helcher Senior Print Buyer: Judy Inouye Senior Rights Acquisition Account Manager, Text: Katie Huha Senior Photo Editor: Jennifer Meyer Dare Production Service/Compositor: Pre-Press PMG Cover Designer: Grannan Graphic Design, Ltd Cover Image: Paul Cookin/Brand X Pictures/©Gettyimages
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✵ Contents
PREFACE v A BO UT THE A UT H O RS
1
ix
Thinking Scientifically
1
Why Bother to Be Systematic?
4
The Role of Reasoned Judgment and Opinion 5 The Role of Imagination, Intuition, and Custom 6 2
The Elements of Science 11 The Origin and Utility of Concepts
12
What Is a Variable? 15 The Hypothesis 24
3
The Scientific Method 27 The Many Roles of Theory
29
Strategies 38 Thinking Over the Problem
40
Reality Testing 46 Understanding the Results 4
50
Refinements 58 Hypotheses 59 Variables
73 iii
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iv
CONTENTS
5