ADVANCES IN ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRON PHYSICS VOLUME 30 CONTRIBUTORS TO THISVOLUME Ralph S . Keen Jifi Komrska C . K. McLane Milorad S . MladjenoviC George L. Schnable R. TornoviC Hardy W. Trolander James H. Veghte L. Vodovnik Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics EDITEDBY L. MARTON Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Assistant Editor CLAIRE MARTON EDITORIAL BOARD T.E. Allibone E. R. Piore H. B. G. Casimir M. Ponte W. G. Dow A. Rose A. 0. C. Nier L. P. Smith F. K. Willenbrock VOLUME 30 1971 ACADEMIC PRESS New York and London COPYRIGHT 0 1971, BY ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM, BY PHOTOSTAT, MICROFILM, RETRIEVAL SYSTEM, OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION FROM THE PUBLISHERS. ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. 111 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003 United Kingdom Edition published b y ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD. 24/28 Oval Road, London NWI IDD LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARDNUMBER: 49-7504 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 30 vii ix Experimental Plasma Turbulence C . K . MCLANE I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. Positive Column Instability and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . IV . Drift Waves and Transition to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . V Feedback Suppression of Low Frequency Plasma Instabilities . . . . . VI . Convection Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII . Other Experimental Studies of Turbulent Plasmas VIII . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 7 11 17 22 23 36 38 Recent Advances in Design of Magnetic Beta-Ray Spectrometers MILORAD S . MLADJENOVIC I . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. Flat Spectrometers. with Cylindrical Field . . . . . . . . . . 111. Sector Spectrometers . . . . IV . Toroidal (" Orange ") Spectrometers V.Lenses. . . . . . . . VI . Trochoidal Spectrometers . . VII . Optical Analogy Spectrometer . VIII . Correctors . . . . . . IX Azimuthally Varying Field . . X . Comparison Table . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 46 53 56 57 58 64 . . . 67 71 73 75 I. Relationship between Types of Integrated Circuits and Failure Mechanisms. I1. Bipolar Failure Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I11. MOS Failure Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV . Multilevel Metallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. Integrated Circuit Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI . Integrated Circuit Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 86 98 107 118 122 133 . On Failure Mechanisms in Large-Scale Integrated Circuits GEORGE L. SCHNABLE AND RALPH S . KEEN V vi CONTENTS Scalar Diffraction Theory in Electron Optics JIkf KOMRSKA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . I1. The Diffraction Integral . . . . . . . I11. Elec