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9 Modern Asia Encyclopedia of 9 Modern Asia Encyclopedia of Volume 1 Abacus to China A Berkshire Reference Work David Levinson • Karen Christensen, Editors 9 Editorial Board Virginia Aksan McMaster University Edward Beauchamp University of Hawaii, Honolulu Anthony Bichel Central Michigan University Rebecca Bichel Pennsylvania State University Linsun Cheng University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth Gerald Fry University of Minnesota Bruce Fulton University of British Columbia Paul Hockings University of Illinois, Chicago Robert LaPorte, Jr. Pennsylvania State University Associate Editors Linda Arthur University of Hawaii, Manoa Jamal Elias Amherst College Allen Guttmann Amherst College Josie Hernandez de Leon Laurentian University Gustaaf Houtman Royal Anthropological Institute, London, U.K. Bruce Lockhart Singapore National University Patit Mishra Sambalpur University Anthony Smith Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Honolulu Encyclopedia of Modern Asia David Levinson and Karen Christensen, Editors Copyright © 2002 Berkshire Publishing Group Charles Scribner’s Sons An imprint of The Gale Group 300 Park Avenue South New York, NY 10010 Gale and Design™ and Thomson Learning™ are trademark s used herein under license. For more information, contact The Gale Group, Inc. 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331–3535 Or you can visit our Internet site at http://www.gale.com ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented including phootcopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Berkshire Publishing Group. Since this page cannot legibly accommodate all copyright notices, the acknowledgments constitute an extension of the copyright notice. The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). For permission to use material from this product, submit your request via Web at http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you may download our Permissions Request form and submit your request by fax or mail to: Permissions Department The Gale Group, Inc. 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions Hotline: 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253, ext. 8006 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Levinson, David, 1947Encyclopedia of modern Asia : / David Levinson, Karen Christensen, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-684-80617-7 (set hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Asia—Encyclopedias. I. Christensen, Karen, 1957- II. Title. DS4 .L48 2002 950'.03—dc21 2002008712 Printed in United States of America 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 9 Editorial and Production Staff Berkshire Publishing Group Project Directors David Levinson and Karen Christensen Project Editor Junhee Kim Senior Editor Francesca Forrest Associate Editor Marcy Ross Copy Editors Peter Donovan, Sharon Emmons, Ann Farkas, Adam Groff, Suzanne Guiod, Elizabeth Hayslett, Jean Kaplan, Gary Kessler, Michael Laraque, Laura Lawrie, Hope Leman, Stephen Lynch, Lea Millay, Mike Nichols, Glenn Perkins, William Rodarmor, Stephen Sanborn, Mark Siemens Information Management and Programming Deborah Dillon Charles Scribner’s Sons Project Editor Sarah Feehan Designer Jennifer Wahi Proofreaders and Editors Tony Coulter, Mary Flower, David Hall, Archie Hobson, Andrew Libby, Katherine Moreau, Laura Patchkofsky, Joseph Pomerance, Linda Sanders Senior Editor John Fitzpatrick Publisher Frank Menchaca 9 Contents Volume 1 Volume 4 List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Acknowledgment