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General Linguistics AN INTRODUCTORY SURVEY INDIANA UNIVERSITY STUDIES IN THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF LINGUISTICS EDITORIAL COMMITTEE THOMAS A. SEBEOK, Chairman Indiana University CHARLES A. FERGUSON Center for Applied Linguistics of the Modern Language Association ERIC P. HAMP University of Chicago DELL H. HYMES University of Pennsylvania JOHN LOTZ Columbia University General Linguistics AN INTRODUCTORY SURVEY by R. H. Robins INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS BLOOMINGTON Copyright © 1964 by R. H. Robins First published in the United States 1965 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 65-21146 Manufactured in the United States of America Contents PREFACE xiii SYSTEM OF REFERENCE xvii TRANSCRIPTIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxi I· GENERAL LINGUISTICS: THE SCOPE OF THE,SUBJECT 1 1'1 GENERAL LINGUISTICS AS THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE I .I .I I . I .2 I . I .3 Language and languages Descriptive, historical, and comparative linguistics The term philology . I· 2 LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE I -2 - I Implications of the term science 1-2' 2 Practical applications 1-3 THE RANGE OF GENERAL LINGUISTICS I - 3 - I Levels of analysis I - 3 -2 Language and symbol systems I - 3 -3 'The origin of language' I- 3 -4 Phonetics, phonology, grammar, semantics 1 1 4 6 ,7 7 10 11 11 13 15 17 v CONTENTS 1 -4 1-4-1 l' 4' 2 1 - 4 -3 I -4 . 4 Philosophical and.linguistic interest in meaning Word meaning Context of situation Translation 20 20 21 26 28 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 32 BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR CHAPTER 1 37 NOTES TO CHAPTER I 40 2' THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 44 SEMANTI CS 2· 1 ABSTRACTIONS 2 - I . I The status of linguistic abstractions 2' I . 2 Structural linguistics: syntagmatic and paradigmatic 44 44 relations 47 DIALECT, IDIOLECT, STYLE Dialects as subdivisions of languages Dialect mapping: isoglosses Class dialects and,' standard languages' 2·2' 4 Criteria for determining dialect status 2 -2 - 5 Linguistic tendencies affecting dialectal divisions 50 50 53 56 58 60 2-3 GENERAL AND PARTICULAR 63 2-4 THE STRUCTURAL TREATMENT OF LINGUISTIC MEANING 2-2 2 -2 -1 2-2'2 2 . 2' 3 2' 4' I The distributional analysis of meaning 2' 4' 2 Collocation 2· 4' 3 Semantic field theory 3'1 BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR CHAPTER 2 75 NOTES TO CHAPTER 2 78 3' 82 PHONETICS ARTICULATORY PHONETICS 3' 1 . 1 The spoken foundation of language vi 66 66 67 70 82 82 CONTENTS 3 . I ·2 Primacy oj articulatory phonetics 3 . I . 3 The physiological basis oj speaking 83 86 3.2 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 3 ·2· I The glottis 3 . 2 . 2 The supraglottal organs oj speech 3 ·2· 3 Nasalization 88 88 89 90 3·3 3 .3 . I 3.3.2 3·3·3 3 . 3 .4 SEGMENTATION: VOWEL AND CONSONANT 3·4 ACOUSTIC PHONETICS 104 3·5 3 .5 . I 3 .5 .2 3 .5 .3 3·5·4 3·5·5 PLURISEGMENTAL FEATURES The continuum oj articulation Supraglottal Jeatures Stress Pitch Voice quality 106 106 107 108 3·6 PHONETICS IN LINGUISTICS Segmentation Vowels and consonants: transcription Vowels Consonants BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR CHAPTER NOTES TO CHAPTER 4· 90 90 91 95 99 110 113 115 3 3 PHONOLOGY 117 119 121 4· I SPEECH AND WRITING 121 4·2 N